See attched below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

See attched below - Essay Example ment would therefore be one which has been used by a particular party for a long time and where such long term use will allow him a proprietary right of usage over the easement, even if it is situated on land that belongs to the dominant land which is owned by someone else. On the basis of this, a legal easement is one that is legally enforceable in a court of law while in the case of an equitable easement, it must be registered under the Land Charges Act if it is to be enforceable. (b) In the case of Norman’s property, there are two easements that are under consideration (i) the lane at the rear that accesses the property and (ii) the road from Acacia road that leads over his property. Therefore, if another party acquires the title to the land at the rear of the property, the issue of legal versus equitable easement will arise in determining access and use of both these easements. In the first case, i.e, the lane at the back, Norman will still have the right to use it by virtue of it being an equitable easement, while in the case of the road in the front, the new owner will not have the right to use it without permission by virtue of its being a legal easement. The rationale for this conclusion is given below as follows: (i) Norman is currently the freehold owner of the land at the rear and has been enjoying the right to use the lane at the back for several years by virtue of his legal interest, since it was not in fact an easement at all but a part of his property. However, when the question of its sale arises, then this lane at the back of the property will be described as â€Å"appurtenant to† the dominant land,2 which belongs to Norman. When the land is transferred under Section 187(1) of the Law of property Act of 1925, then this easement will pass with it.3. But the easement must accommodate the dominant land because what is passed is only to ensure normal enjoyment of the land rather than to provide any undue advantage.4 An easement is a right of way

Explain and evaluate claims made by linguistic relativists regarding the relationship between language, thought and culture Essay Example for Free

Explain and evaluate claims made by linguistic relativists regarding the relationship between language, thought and culture Essay The relationship between language, culture and thought has been a controversial discussion over decades. Many linguists and thinkers have argued that language lead to large differences in culture and thoughts. Some argue that language controls people’s view and thought of the world, where language embodies worldview, and some argue the otherwise. Language, culture and thought may always refer as together, but any one of them implies the other two. In this essay, I am going to focus on linguistic relativism and I will evaluate claims made by linguistic relativists. Linguistic relativism is a weaker interpretation of linguistic determinism. It is â€Å"a window through which to view the cognitive process, not as an absolute. It’s set forth to be used in looking at a phenomenon differently than one usually would. † (Badhesha, 2001) Linguistic categorize and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior. Linguistic relativity hypothesis has always been a controversial and serious topic. In late-eighteenth and early nineteenth century, Boas claimed that there’s no intrinsic relationship between culture and language. (Boas, 1911) Acquainted with Boas, Edward Sapir was impressed with Boas’ statement. Later, he proposed a theory which becomes the most famous attempt in demonstrating relationship between language, culture and thoughts, â€Å"Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis† (Whorfian Hypothesis). The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis can be broken into two simple concepts: Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativism. Linguistic determinism holds a stronger view. It refers to â€Å"the concept that what is said has only some effect on how concepts are recognized by the mind†, â€Å"A strict view that what is said is directly responsible for what is seen by the mind. † (Badhesha, 2002) This stronger point is supported by Sapir. Sapir: â€Å"language and culture are not intrinsically associated† but â€Å"language and our thought-grooves are inextricably interwoven, [and] are, in a sense, one and the same† (1921: 228, 232) Sapir believes that language and culture are not explicitly related but language, culture and thoughts are interwoven that cannot be unwoven each other. Sapir also expressed his view that language affects how we perceive the world, â€Å"Even comparatively simple acts of perception are very much more at the mercy of the social patterns called words than we might suppose. †¦ We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. † (1929, p. 210) Sapir here explained that language determines our thoughts and culture, it affects our views of the world and culture is a product of language. Sapir’s student, Benjamin Lee Whorf supported and made his theory stronger. Whorf’s claims are both to the extreme, strongest but to the weaker and more cautious at the same time. The extreme perspective is linguistic determinism, where the weaker is linguistic relativism. In fact, linguistic relativism is widely spread through Whorf’s work. Whorf: â€Å"The background linguistic system of each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas. † (1940, â€Å"Science and Linguistics,† Technology Review 42: 229-31, 247-8) In this quote, Whorf proposed the stronger form where language determines thought, language shapes our ideas. â€Å"The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which have to be organized largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. † (Whorf, 1940a:231) This is a weaker form where Whorf argue that the world is somehow under the influence of our linguistic systems. Both in stronger and weaker form, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis argue that our thoughts, ideas, behavior and culture are under the influence of language. This hypothesis is supported with evidence. Perception of colors is one of the obvious evidence that support language influences our thoughts. Different languages has their way to encode and categorize colors, in English, there are sixteen basic colors and common two color terms â€Å"dark† and â€Å"light†. However, Russian has different words to distinguish light blue (boluboy) and dark blue (siniy). When Russian and English speakers are put to a test to discriminate the two blue colors, Russian is found to be better at it. As Russian perceive the two blue colors as different colors unlike English speakers who categorize it as blue generally. In both English and Chinese, when giving directions verbally, we tend to use â€Å"left† and â€Å"right† instead of E/W/S/N, this is also true in many other languages. However, Kuuk Thaayorra (aboriginal language spoken in Queensland, Australia), they use E/W/S/N to represent â€Å"left† and â€Å"right†, e. g. when they refer to right hand, they may say east hand. Their perception of the world differs from us due to the use of direction terms. To them, the world needs to include precise orientations. This is an example of perception of space which display language affects our perceptions and thoughts. Grammatical feature is another proof of language affects our culture. Whorf asserts that â€Å"users of markedly different grammars are pointed by their grammar towards different types of observations†¦ and hence are not equivalent as observers but must arrive at somewhat different views of the world† (Whorf 1940b:61) Whorf suggested that speakers of different languages will think about the world differently. Hopi language (aboriginal language spoken in Arizona) is early evidence to Whorfian Hypothesis on language and thought. In Hopi language system, they don’t have tenses such as –ed, -ing, -s in SAE [1], they have different perspective of time from SAE speakers. Also, in Hopi, the concept of time cannot be counted and talked like a physical quantity. Language also affects and reflects our culture and values. In Hong Kong, we refer to relatives in different terms, not only â€Å"aunt/uncle†, â€Å"cousins† unlike English. For example, we have different terms for cousins that are older and younger than us, e. g. â€Å"biu-gor† (older male cousin), â€Å"biu-mui† (younger female cousin). It reflects the hierarchy and projects the importance of respecting senior in Chinese family. We can see that Chinese family, including families in Hong Kong divides and identifies its members. For Chinese people, they perceive seniors as people to respect. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is the idea that the language that person speaks will affect their perception of the world and accordingly their behavior and culture. In stronger form, language determines the way we think and what we are capable to think of where as linguistic relativity; the weaker form indicates that our thoughts and culture are under the influence of language. Although there are more and more scientific and real life examples that support Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, anthropologists and linguists still argues weather the hypothesis is too strong or not today. Many argue that instead of language determining our thoughts and culture, they are in fact inter-related and none of them should be dominating the other two. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has received criticism over the years, and it summed up to be three main criticisms, the idea of causality, the methods and translations. While Whorf and Sapir claimed that language affects our perception of the world and the formation of our cultures. Both of them didn’t include the evolution of language, what made up our language, the cultural values that may have been included while setting language system. It is possible that cultural values that might have developed language helped the way we perceive the world. Humboldt (late 18th century) also questioned Sapir-Whorf’s hypothesis, â€Å"The spiritual traits and the structure of the language of a people are so intimately blended that, given either of the two, one should be able to derive the other from it†¦ language is their spirit, and their spirit is their language; it is difficult to imagine any two things more identical. † He also questioned the causality of such hypothesis. Whether if language is the spirit of thoughts and culture or the otherwise. He claims that it is uncertain which one should be derives and to be the spirit of the others. Another obvious criticism is the methods Whorf’s methods. Some believed that Whorf deliberately translated Hopi language in a certain way to support his own hypothesis, to emphasis another thinking system. Linguists, Steven Pinker accused Whorf’s method with strong attitude, â€Å"No one is really sure how Whorf came up with his outlandish claims, but his limited, badly analyzed sample of Hopi speech and his long-term leanings towards mysticism must have helped. † (Pinker, 1994) He also overthrown Whorf’s claim of Hopi people has different perception of time as â€Å"anthropologist Malotki (1983) has found that the Hopi do have a concept of time very similar to ours. † (Neil Parr-Davies, 2001) Translation is another criticism of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Many critics raised the question, if our thoughts are really affected and determined by language, then presumably certain concepts would only be understandable to people that shared the same language. That suggested that if the hypothesis is entirely true, Whorf would have been failed to understand Hopi people’s concept, needless to say even to understand their first thought. Although criticisms are raised against Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, there are more evidence and claims that support it even in modern days. In fact, psycholinguistic have been studying far beyond perception of color and Hopi language currently, it has been studying and discovering more evidence in modern days such as emotion perception, memory etc. Modern famous researchers like Lera Boroditsky, John A. Lucy believe in Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, that language indeed influences thoughts, however in relatively narrow ways. I agree the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis to a large extent. I believe language does influence our thoughts and perceptions of the world. Recently, I have been studying different accents in the world and discovered that it is evidence supporting the linguistic relativists. For example, if someone speaks English in BBC accents or Queen’s English, we would immediately refer them coming from higher social status in Britain. Indeed, our perception can be easily affected by the trivial elements in language as accents. Even nowadays, there are more and more evidence that prove linguistic relativists; we cannot deny the fact that language does somehow shape our daily thoughts and life. Language changes the way we see different culture, it can reflect a certain culture and background of people. Taking Soviet Ukraine as an example, as the prices and supply of product was centrally controlled, they were very cheap and hard to find, and instead of saying â€Å"What are they selling? † they ask, â€Å"Shcho dajut? †(What are they giving? ). Through the language, we can see the cultural values and background of a country, allowing us to understand and perceive different cultures. Nonetheless, I disagree to a small extent as I believe, on one hand, language may shape our thoughts and culture; on the other hand, our culture and thoughts also shape language. Language may act as a tool merely reflecting our thoughts and culture. Under patriarchy and stereotyping, many European countries referred male as a stronger, rational and more dynamic member of the society while female were emotional, silent and subtle one. Leading European languages like French, Spanish are some examples that reflect social stereotyping under patriarchal influence. In French, almost all sport and daylight activities are referred as male, â€Å"le soleil† (the sun) while almost all night time activities are referred as female, â€Å"la lune† (the moon). Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is a powerful and leading linguistic theory that suggests the relationship between language, culture and thoughts. It can be interpreted as linguistic determinism and relativism; it remains arguable and controversial whether this hypothesis is too strong. Much evidence arises even until today supporting the hypothesis. It is inevitable that every hypothesis receives criticism, but I truly believe the reason why Whorfianism is still being studied today is because we can never deny the influence of language on our thoughts and culture. Language may not be the one the strongly defines our perception and values, but it does affects us in our everyday life.

Characteristics Of Perfect Competition Economics Essay

Characteristics Of Perfect Competition Economics Essay Monopoly is a market structure that is the only sole seller of a product and large number of buyers that have no close substitution and have a high entry and exit barrier. A monopoly markethas no other firms can enter the market and compete with it to produce some good or service. For an example that gave by Vengedasalam, D., et. al. (2008, p.229) If want to subscribe television channel services, the only one will go is Astro. But if want to use Astro services, it have various options to choose from, and this industry is not a monopoly market. 2.1 Characteristics of Monopoly: Single seller in the market: Monopoly is a price maker in the firm which has the power to control the price. In the proof of the auxiliary theorem Jackson, J. (1998, p.22.5), price maker is a seller of a commodity that is able to affect the price at which a commodity sells by changing the amount it sells. No Close Substitutes:It means customer or buyers could not find any substitute for the product. If the buyer can find out, then this product is no more in monopoly. In others way to describe, a monopoly cannot exist if there is a competition or any substitute product. Restriction of entry of new firms: In a monopoly market, there are strict barriers to the entry of new firms. Barriers to entry are natural of legal restrictions that restrict the entry of new firms into the industry. Average and Marginal Revenue Curves: Under monopoly, average revenue is greater than marginal revenue. Under monopoly, if the firm wants to increase the sale it can do so only when it reduces its price. 2.2 Types of Monopoly 2.2.1 Natural Monopolies One firm can produce at a lower cost compared to what two or more firms could produce. 2.2.2 Government- Created Monopolies Government creates monopolies to prevent firms from entering into a market. This can be done through difficulty in obtaining license to operate in the market or providing patent and copyrights to a monopoly firms. There are some legal barriers that are government franchise, government license, patent, copyright and control over raw material. 2.3 Monopolys Revenue A monopolists marginal revenue is always less than the price of its good. (According from N. Gregory Mankiw, principle of microeconomics fourth edition pg. 317), shows the example how the monopolys revenue might depend on the amount of water produced. C:UsersTOSHIBADesktop123.jpg Table 1: A monopolys Total, Average, and Marginal Revenue Table 1 shows a result that is important for understanding monopoly behavior: A monopolists marginal revenue is always less than the price of its good. For monopoly, marginal revenue is lower than price because a monopoly only faces a downward-sloping demand curve. C:UsersTOSHIBADesktop123a.jpg Figure 3: Demand and Marginal-Revenue Curves for a Monopoly The demand curve shows how the quantity affects the price of a good. The marginal-revenue curve shows how the firms revenue changes when the quantity increases by 1 unit. Marginal revenue is always less than the price because the price on all units sold must fall if the monopoly increases production 2.4 Profit Maximization In this graph shows the profit maximization for a monopoly. The point of A is the intersection of the marginal-revenue curve and the marginal-cost curve determines the profit-maximizing quantity. All this curves contain all the information we need to determine the level output that a profit-maximizing monopolist will choose. C:UsersTOSHIBADesktop123b.jpg Figure 4: Profit Maximization for a monopoly A monopoly maximizes profit by choosing the quantity at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost (point A). It then  uses the demand curve to find the price that will induce consumers to buy that quantity (point B). Thus, the monopolists profit-maximizing quantity of output is determined by the intersection of the marginal-revenue curve and the marginal-cost curve. 2.4.1 A Monopolys Profit C:UsersTOSHIBADesktopMicro Assignment diagram20130222_121054.jpg Figure 5: The monopolists Profit The area of the box BCDE equals the profit of the monopoly firm. The height of the box (BC) is price minus average total cost, which equals profit per unit old. The width of the box (DC) is the number of units sold. 3.0 Characteristics of Market Structures In a perfectly competitive market, the market structure is an interconnected feature or characteristics in which will affect the nature of competition and the price. For example, the volume and relative strength of buyers and sellers, the degree of collusion among them, level and forms of competition, the extent of product differentiation, and the ease of entry into and exit from the market. Market structures refer to the competitive environment within which a firm operates. Market structures divided into four basic types which is perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. 3.1 Perfect Competition Perfect competitive is defined as a market in which there are many buyers and sellers, the products of selling are homogeneous, and sellers can easily enter and exit from the market. 3.2.1 Characteristics of Perfect Competition Large number of buyers and sellers: Reynolds, R. L., (2005, p.2) points out that the idealized perfect competitive insures that no buyers and sellers has any power or ability to influence the price. The perfect competitive market is price takers. Products of selling are homogeneous: The firm must sell homogeneous product. The products are where the buyers could not differentiate the products of one seller to another seller. Easy enter and exit: From the research of Salvatore, D. (2009, p.245) demonstrated that resources or inputs are free to move among the various industries and locations within the market response to monetary incentives. So, there are no artificial barriers to entry into and exit from the industry. Perfect knowledge: Both of the sellers and buyers have perfect knowledge of the market. Sellers and buyers cannot influence with each others.Both of them must know the market price of the goods as given. Non-price competition: Microeconomics, 2008 Author: Dviga Vengedasalam, Karunagaran Madhavan, Rohana Kamaruddin point out the role of non-price competition is insignificant since many sellers sell the products at a fixed price and furthermore, the products are identical. The firms have no control over the price and their gods are identical, so there is no selling cost. 3.3 Monopoly Monopoly is single seller in which sell the product is unique. Thus, there are large number of buyers and selling the products that have no close substitution and have high barriers between entry and exit. For an example that gave by Vengedasalam, D., et. al. (2008, p.229) If want to subscribe home telephone services, the only one will go is Telekom Malaysia. 3.3.1 Characteristics of Monopoly Single seller in the market: Monopoly is a price maker in the firm which has the power to control the price. In the proof of the auxiliary theorem Jackson, J. (1998, p.22.5), price maker is a seller of a commodity that is able to affect the price at which a commodity sells by changing the amount it sells. No Close Substitutes: It means customer or buyers could not find any substitute for the product. If the buyer can find out, then this product is no more in monopoly. In others way to describe, a monopoly cannot exist if there is a competition or any substitute product. Strong barriers to the entry into the industry exist: In a monopoly market there is strong barrier on the entry of new firms. Monopolist faces no competition. The monopolist has absolute control over the production and sale of the commodity certain economic barriers are imposed on the entry. 3.4 Monopolistic Competition Microeconomics, 2008 Author: Dviga Vengedasalam, Karunagaran Madhavan, Rohana Kamaruddin points out that the Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which there are large numbers of small sellers differentiated products but these are close substitute products and have easy entry into and exit from the market. 3.4.1 Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition Large numbers of seller and buyers: It is less as compared to perfect competition. Because, monopolistic competition will produces different or unique products, so that they will have some control over the prices. Hence, each firm will follows an independent of the price output policy. Product differentiation:Each firm produces a product that is at least slightly different from those of other firms. For example, if coffee is sold in coffee pack only, then it is perfect competition. But, if the same coffee is mixed with chocolate packaged in a box and label as Choco-Coffee, then this product is in monopolistic competition. Easy entry and exit:This is freedom to entry of new firms, but it is not as easy as perfect competition because it needs to make some differentiate product enter the monopolistic competition. 3.5 Oligopoly According to the preservearticles.com, Oligopoly is often referred to as competition among the few. In brief oligopoly is a kind of imperfect market where there are a few firm in the market, producing either and homogeneous product or producing product which are close but not perfect substitutes of each other. 3.5.1 Characteristics of Oligopoly Few numbers of firms: The firms are few but the size of firms is large. In few firms will control the overall industry under oligopoly. For example of the oligopoly which is Unisem and Carsem. Homogeneous and differentiated product: The firms in an oligopolistic industry may produce standardized or differentiated products. For example, DIGI or U-mobile produced by one firm is identical to another firm. Mutual interdependence: The author further stated that oligopoly always consider in choosing price, sales target, advertising budgets and other. Price rigidity:According to the preservearticles.com, there is the existence price rigidity. Prices lend to be rigid and sticky. If any firm makes a price-cut it is immediately retaliated by the rival firms by the same practice of price-cut. There occurs a price-war in the oligopolistic condition. 3.7The Differences between the various characteristics with the four types of market structure The various characteristics between the four types of market structure which are Perfect Competition, Monopolistic Competition, Oligopoly and Monopoly have been discussed. The most important of these characteristics are differentiate in which will affect the nature of competition and the price. Therefore, table 2 shows the differentiation of the characteristics of the following market structure. Perfect Competition Monopolistic Competition Oligopoly Monopoly Barriers to entry Low Low High Very High Number of Producers Many Many Few One Types of product Standardized Differentiated Standardized or Differentiated Unique Example Fruit Vegetables 100 Plus Carsem Astro Table 2: Characteristics of market structure 4.0 Conclusion and Recommendation As my conclusion, I think that monopoly is the best in microeconomic. This is because monopoly is a form that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutes. It remains other firms cannot enter the market and complete with it.

Chemical Basis of Life :: essays research papers

Chapter 4 The Chemical Basis of Life Introduction †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your body is an elaborate chemical system. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chemical signals between brain less enable your mind to understand what you see. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  You nourish those cells with chemicals that are obtained from food. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Life is all about chemicals and how they interact Concept 4.1 Life requires about 25 chemical elements Elements †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Humans and other organisms are examples of matter. Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass. (Physical things) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The various forms of matter are composed of one or more chemical elements. Element: A pure substance that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by chemical means †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are 25 elements are essential to life. Four of these elements are Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N). These make up about 96% of the living matter in your body. Calcium (CA), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), sulfur (S), and a few other elements account for most of the remaining 4%. Trace Elements: elements that make up less that 0.01 percent of your body mass are nevertheless critical to your health. Compounds †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most elements can interact with other elements forming complex types of matter called compounds. Compound: A substance containing two or more elements that are chemically combined in a fixed ratio. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Compounds properties may differ greatly from those of its components. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though simple compounds like sodium chloride and water play important roles in living things, most compounds found in organisms are more complex, containing at least three or four elements. Concept 4.2 Chemical properties are based on the structure of atoms. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Different elements have different properties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some are solid metal at room temperature, some are invisible gases, some elements readily react with other elements, whiles others hardly react at all. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These properties affect the roles that different elements play in biological processes. This section describes how an elements properties to its structure. Atoms †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each element consists of a single kind of atom that is different from the atoms of all other elements. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Atom- gets its name from the Greek word atomos, meaning â€Å"indivisible† is the smallest possible â€Å"Pierce†Ã¢â‚¬â€it would take more than tree million carbon atoms to stretch across the period printed at the end of this sentence. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Atoms are all elements are made up of even smaller components called subatomic particles. Proton: Is a subatomic particle with a single unit of positive electrical charge. Electron: is a subatomic particle with a unit of negative charge. Neutron: is electrically neutral. Nucleus: is the center of an atom. It is made up of tightly packed protons and neutrons. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Electrons, which have much less mass than neutrons and protons continually, move about the outside of the nucleus at great speed. Chemical Basis of Life :: essays research papers Chapter 4 The Chemical Basis of Life Introduction †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your body is an elaborate chemical system. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chemical signals between brain less enable your mind to understand what you see. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  You nourish those cells with chemicals that are obtained from food. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Life is all about chemicals and how they interact Concept 4.1 Life requires about 25 chemical elements Elements †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Humans and other organisms are examples of matter. Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass. (Physical things) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The various forms of matter are composed of one or more chemical elements. Element: A pure substance that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by chemical means †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are 25 elements are essential to life. Four of these elements are Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N). These make up about 96% of the living matter in your body. Calcium (CA), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), sulfur (S), and a few other elements account for most of the remaining 4%. Trace Elements: elements that make up less that 0.01 percent of your body mass are nevertheless critical to your health. Compounds †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most elements can interact with other elements forming complex types of matter called compounds. Compound: A substance containing two or more elements that are chemically combined in a fixed ratio. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Compounds properties may differ greatly from those of its components. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though simple compounds like sodium chloride and water play important roles in living things, most compounds found in organisms are more complex, containing at least three or four elements. Concept 4.2 Chemical properties are based on the structure of atoms. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Different elements have different properties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some are solid metal at room temperature, some are invisible gases, some elements readily react with other elements, whiles others hardly react at all. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These properties affect the roles that different elements play in biological processes. This section describes how an elements properties to its structure. Atoms †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each element consists of a single kind of atom that is different from the atoms of all other elements. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Atom- gets its name from the Greek word atomos, meaning â€Å"indivisible† is the smallest possible â€Å"Pierce†Ã¢â‚¬â€it would take more than tree million carbon atoms to stretch across the period printed at the end of this sentence. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Atoms are all elements are made up of even smaller components called subatomic particles. Proton: Is a subatomic particle with a single unit of positive electrical charge. Electron: is a subatomic particle with a unit of negative charge. Neutron: is electrically neutral. Nucleus: is the center of an atom. It is made up of tightly packed protons and neutrons. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Electrons, which have much less mass than neutrons and protons continually, move about the outside of the nucleus at great speed.

Internet & Society Essay

The world is changing and many new technologies are being developed continuously. Our daily life is affected by these changes. The changes will become faster in future. Internet is one most important result of changing technologies. It has become a part of our daily life. Every new technology has its own effects. Some of them are positive and some may be negative. We should avoid the negative effects. Technology should be used in a positive manner, otherwise it will destroy us. Internet is an amazing creation of the technology. The whole world is affected by it and all people are directly or indirectly related with it. Internet is extremely helpful for numerous persons. Students take help of internet for their homework. Investors use internet for the information about stocks. Sport fans watch score and statistics. Internet has taken the place of television. Today internet is same as the television in 1940-50s. Internet is more useful and advantageous than television. But it is not possible for every person to use the internet. Internet also created an effect on the print media and it is gradually replacing the print media because a magazine or newspaper can be published at a very low cost on the internet. There is no need of ink and paper on the internet and fewer workers are required. That’s why print media is taking the advantage of internet. Internet is the main reason behind the revolution in society. Because of the internet, communication between the different countries, societies, communities became possible. Before the internet technology there was no other communication system being so vast to express the ideas and the feelings. Through internet data, voice, and video communication is possible. Mostly people avoid speaking to unknown person. Internet has proved very useful for such kind of people, because they talk with people without showing their age, looks and class. People find many friends through the internet. Many public sites provide this facility. People can gain many friends through these sites. Many young people are earning money with the help of internet by web designing, game construction, working as a freelance writer. It means internet provides many opportunities for the people. Internet has shrunk the world. Today each country is connected with another country with the help of internet. People of one country or society are becoming familiar with the culture of another country or society. With the help of internet the people who have knowledge got their position in the society. At present online shopping has become very popular. People are buying products from their home with the help of the internet. People buy products at low cost from the internet as compare to market because companies can save money of shops and workers in online shopping. United state based company Amazon. com is the best example of online shopping company. People can find each and every thing at lower cost on this website. In recent years some companies have allowed their employees to work at home with the help of internet because workplace has become very stressful and the pollution also increased in some last years. This is very advantageous because a person can save money and time by working from home. The Internet provides freedom of speech. The people who don’t have courage can convey their ideas with the help of internet without any fear. With the help of internet now people are globally connected. A person can communicate with the person of other part of the word at any time through internet. Now people are connected socially and professionally by the use of internet. Internet is very suitable and affordable medium of communication. Today we can place an order just by click a button. Now we can book hotels, flights and train tickets online. Internet made the communication easy. Now we can communicate with the help of e-mail, video conferencing, instant messaging, and Voice over Internet Proxy (VoIP). People can easily get information with the help of internet because there is a very huge database on the internet related with each object. People are finding jobs with the help of internet. We can submit many forms online, which saves time. On internet we can decide that which news or information we want to read. Internet is also playing an important role in the field of entertainment. We can play many games and solve puzzles. Songs can be listened online and we can watch videos on internet. There are some bad effects also, because of the internet on the society. Pornography is a very bad effect of the internet. Sexual material is easily available on internet and society is accepting this material without hesitation. Because of this interest of the people in sex is increasing day by day. As a result, sex-related crimes are increasing continuously. Because of the internet a lot of jobs have been lost, because a small number of people are required to run a site. Because of the online shopping people do not leave their home. This is a reason behind the many diseases such as obesity. Online shopping is not helpful for the local economy because most of these online shopping sites are international. Internet is not always reliable, because there is a risk of breaking the privacy. There is everything is in the form of binary information. On internet we are dependent on others for our privacy. We can not surely protect our information. With the help of data mining our information can be theft. Copyright problem has become a great problem now days. Identity of a person can be theft with the help of internet. There are many other bad effects of the internet such as meeting with the people whom you met online, giving personal information to a complete stranger, giving wrong information. A person can be easily cheated by the internet. Many terrorists are using internet technology for communication by using a wrong address. Child pornography, credit card frauds, espionage, online stalking, kidnappings are some other bad effects of the internet on the society. Now it can be said that it depends on us how internet affects society. Internet can be proved very useful if we use it in a positive direction. Many laws are made for preventing internet crimes, but these crimes are still there. There is a need of enforcement of these laws. Internet can be very useful for the society. It is the best medium of communication and it can be said a good platform for expressing your ideas. There are a lot of changes in the society because of the internet. Internet enhanced the status of the living. Today information and education about the safe use of computer has become very important. There are many disadvantages of the internet, but I think it has really improved our lives.There is a need of education and enforcement of the laws. References Cole J. I. The Impact of the Internet on Our Social,Political and Economic Life. The UCCLA Center for communication Policy. 2000. Cuizon, G. Internet Crime: How Does It Affect Our Society?. April 15, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2009 from http://www. socyberty. com/Crime/Internet-Crime-How-Does-It-Affect-Our-Society. 109754 Nie, N. Study of social Consequences of the Internet. Stanford Institute of the Quantitative Study of Society (SIQSS). 2000. Pros and cons of the Internet in today’s society. Retrieved February 24, 2009 from http://www. helium. com/items/779510-pros-and-cons-of-the-internet-in-todays-society Purdy, R. The Internet- Boon or Detriment to Society? Retrieved February 24, 2009 from http://iml. jou. ufl. edu/projects/STUDENTS/Purdy/INDEX. HTM Rajani, M. K. & Chandio, M. S. Use of Internet and its effects on our Society. Retrieved February 24, 2009 from http://www. szabist. edu. pk/ncet2004/Docs/Session%20VIII%20Paper%20No%202%20(P%20157-161). pdf The Internet’s Effect on Society. November 19, 2001. Retrieved February 24, 2009 from http://www. bbc. co. uk/dna/h2g2/A650684

10 Reasons to Oppose the Death Penalty Essay

Innocence and the Death Penalty The wrongful execution of an innocent person is an injustice that can never be rectified. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty, 139 men and women have been released from death row nationally. The High Cost of the Death Penalty It costs far more to execute a person than to keep him or her in prison for life. Death Penalty Can Prolong Suffering for Victims’ Families Many family members who have lost love ones to murder feel that the death penalty will not heal their wounds nor will it end their pain; the extended legal process prior to executions can prolong the agony experienced by the victims’ families. International Views on the Death Penalty The vast majority of countries in Western Europe, North America and South America – more than 139 nations worldwide – have abandoned capital punishment in law or in practice. Inadequate Legal Representation Perhaps the most important factor in determining whether a defendant will receive the death penalty is the quality of the representation he or she is provided. Deterrence Scientific studies have consistently failed to demonstrate that executions deter people from committing crime anymore than long prison sentences. Arbitrariness in the Application of the Death Penalty Politics, quality of legal counsel and the jurisdiction where a crime is committed are more often the determining factors in a death penalty case than the facts of the crime itself. Religious Perspectives on the Death Penalty Although isolated passages of religious scripture have been quoted in support of the death penalty, almost all religious groups in the United States regard executions as immoral. Racial Disparities The race of the victim and the race of the defendant in capital cases are major factors in determining who is sentenced to die in this country. In 1990 a report from the General Accounting Office concluded that â€Å"in 82 percent of the studies [reviewed], race of the victim was found to influence the likelihood of being charged with capital murder or receiving the death penalty, i.e. those who murdered whites were more likely to be sentenced to death than those who murdered blacks.† Alternatives to the Death Penalty In every state that retains the death penalty, jurors have the option of sentencing convicted capital murderers to life in prison without the possibility of parole. The sentence is cheaper to tax-payers and keeps violent offenders off the streets for good.

Function of the SAT - PrepScholar 2016 Students Encyclopedia

Function of the SAT - PrepScholar 2016 Students' Encyclopedia SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Many 4-year U.S. colleges and universities require SAT or ACT scores fromtheir prospective students. Admissions officers, particularly those selecting for academic ability, consider the SAT as a measurement of academic ability and potential. The SAT is meant to be a reasoning test that evaluates students' problem-solving and analytical skills, rather than their specific content knowledge. Note: this article is a series in the PrepScholar2016 Students' Encyclopedia, a free students' and parents' SAT / ACT guide that provides encyclopedic knowledge. Read all the articles here! SAT scores are not the sole criterion for admission, nor are they the only measure of academic ability within a student's college application. Scores are considered in conjunction with high school grade point average (GPA), course selection, and other indicatorsof achievement. Many admissions officers emphasize that they take a holistic view of each applicant, considering the "whole person" as evidenced by his/her grades, extracurricular involvement, recommendations, and personal essay, among other demonstrated interests, accomplishments, and goals. While most colleges do not publicize specific SAT score minimums, many share data on the average scores of their accepted students. If this data shows a range of scores from the 25th to the 75th percentile, then the higher end of the range may be more representative of the school's SAT score expectations for the majority of regular applicants. The lower end of this kind of range may reflect the scores of special interest applicants who can gain admission with lower SAT scores, like students who are recruited for athletics. While many admissions officers claim they take a holistic approach, some will not review applications that do not contain a certain minimumSAT score. Conversely, high SAT scores are rarely a guarantee of admission, especially not at selective institutions like those in the Ivy League. Studentsthat entered Harvard's class of 2017, for example, had an average SAT score of 2237. Harvard's recruited athletes, on average, scored 173 points lower on the SAT than their non-recruited classmates. In addition to sharing data on average SAT scores of incoming students, most colleges share their policies on SAT scores. Some schools "superscore" the SAT, or take students' highest section scores across all testing dates and recombine them into a maximized composite score. Popular schools that have a policy of superscoring the SAT include Boston University, Columbia, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, MIT, Princeton, and the University of Connecticut. Other colleges look at a student's highest sitting on one date he/she took the SAT. Schools that consider students' "highest sitting" include Arizona State University, Colorado State University, Oregon State University, and University of Wisconsin. By researching their prospective colleges' stance on SAT scores, students may adjust their preparation and test-taking plans accordingly. An increasing number of colleges have adopted test flexible and test optional policies. These may allow students to send SAT Subject tests or AP tests in lieu of the general SATor to choose whether or not to send their SAT scores. NYU, for example,allows students to send three SAT Subject Tests or three AP tests in lieu of the SAT, among other options. While students may be able to decide whether their scores are an accurate representation of their academic ability when applying to test optional schools, those who omit their scores may be at an empirical disadvantage when compared with theirpeers who chose to include their scores. HampshireCollege is the only school thus far that has adopted a "test blind" policy, stating, "We will not consider SAT/ACT scores regardless of the score. Even if it's a perfect score, it will not weigh into our assessment of an applicant." While colleges take varied approaches to their consideration of SAT scores, College Board states that the SAT is meant to give national perspective to local data from schools on students' achievement and ability. As a standardized test, College Board maintains that the SAT measures academic ability independent from differences among students' educational experiences by school district, including variationsin curricula, school funding, and course rigor. Critics of the SAT drawon data that shows a correlation between higher SAT scores and higher levels of family income and parental education. Rather than testing students "on a level playing field," SAT critics claim that the SAT contributes to existing patterns of social and educational inequality. The changes made to the redesigned SAT, which will be administered starting in March of 2016, may have been partially motivated to address these criticismsand to make the SAT more accessible to students across income levels. The elimination of high level vocabulary words in favor of medium-range, multiple meaning words, for instance, may be one change aimed to make the test more fair and to improve its validity and predictive power. College Board also recently began a collaboration with Khan Academy to offer free videos, lessons, and sample questions for students to prepare for the new SAT. In addition to addressing the concerns of critics, College Board may have been motivated to update the SAT in order to remain competitive with its counterpart, the ACT. Historically, the majority of American students who lived on the East and West coasts took the SAT while students in Midwestern states took the ACT. In 20, the number of students who took the ACT nationwide surpassed the number that took the SAT for the first time. The redesigned SAT will more closely resemble the ACT in several ways, particularly in the format of its vocabulary questions and its newly optional essay. Read more from the SAT Encyclopedia! Further Reading Which Colleges Superscore the SAT? Colleges Requiring All SAT Scores Sent: Complete List How Can You Build the Most Versatile College Application?

Caring for Individuals with Acute Mental Health Needs The WritePass Journal

Caring for Individuals with Acute Mental Health Needs Abstract Caring for Individuals with Acute Mental Health Needs ). Suicidal behaviour is a persistent and lethal public health problem that is among the leading cause of death worldwide (Mitchell et al. 2009). Depression is a important risk factor for suicide (Knapp and Ilson, 2002).   It can increase suicidal tendencies four-times higher compared with the general population, this can increase 20-fold in the severely ill (Bostwick Pankratz, 2000). Suicide accounts for ~ 1% of deaths, while two-thirds of these deaths occur in depressed individuals (Sartorius, 2001). There are several forms of depressive disorders, including major depressive disorder, which can interfere with everyday living, characterised by an inability to work, sleep, study, eat or take enjoyment in activities , as stated in the Quality Standards (QS8) (NICE, 2001). Minor depression is diagnosed when symptoms have persisted for 2+ weeks as in the case of Michael, but do not meet the total evaluation for major depression (Moussavi et al., 2007). However, without treatment minor depression can develop into major depressive disorder (Nicholson et al. 2006). Furthermore, an estimated 50% of depressed individuals are not recognised in primary care (National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, 2009). Diagnosis Depression can be reliably diagnosed and is covered by QS8. Diagnosis of depression is based on its severity and persistence, as well as the occurrence of other symptoms, as well as the extent of functional and social impairment (Kupfer, 1991). The National Health Service (NHS) has a number of models to aid clinicians to diagnose depression. Recognition, assessment and initial administration of individuals presenting with symptoms of depression is covered by the GC90 NICE guidelines, which states that persons presenting with symptoms of depression should be referred to appropriate professionals if the practitioner is not competent in mental health assessments (NICE, 2004, 2007, 2009). Michael’s presentation and the complication of suicide thoughts means that Michael is on step 4 of the stepped care model (figure 1) and was referred immediately to an acute psychiatric ward. Figure 1: Stepped care model (NICE 2009) Risk assessment Michael has suicidal thoughts, which means he presents considerable immediate risk to himself and so requires referral to specialist mental health services (DH, 2007).   However, referral can result in increased anxiety, agitation and suicidal ideation during initial treatment. As such, medical staff should be vigilant for mood changes, negativity, hopelessness and suicidal ideation, and increased support should be provided such as frequent contact (NICE, 2004). Evidence-Based Practice and Treatment There are a number of effective treatments for depression. The recommended treatment options for moderate to severe depression, as stated by the World Health Organisation (WHO), consists of psychosocial assistance in conjunction with antidepressant medication and/or psychotherapy, which includes CBT, interpersonal psychotherapy or problem-solving treatments. Initial treatment of depression often begins when the patient consults their GP, NICE (2011) states that a comprehensive assessment is required that is more than a symptom tally, but accounts for functional impairment or disability. To ensure this the GP will frequently give the patient a questionnaire to fill in for assessment which may use rating scales such as GAD, PHQ or Whooley. Michael was assessed as significant risk to himself, therefore he was referred to a specialist mental health service. NICE (2011) states that effective delivery of interventions for depression requires competent practitioners to deliver interventions, which may include psychosocial and psychological interventions. Michael’s treatment would consist of medication, however as he presents with suicidal ideation, medication toxicity as well as the quantities issued, should be assessed stringently (Simon et al., 2006). Antidepressants can be valuable in treating moderate to severe depression, but should not be the primary form of treatment for mild depression (WHO, 1992). The potential side-effects, addiction potential and importance of taking prescribed medication should be explained (Anderson, et al., 2008). Medication support should be provided for at least six months following remission of a depressive episode of (Jick et al., 2004). Michael should be monitored by nursing staff and he should be reassured that he can talk to them, although he must be told that staff have a duty to inform the doc tors of any concerns. It is important to remember to not offer false reassurance; problem-solving is the best treatment. If Michael is released into the community, he should be monitored at least weekly (WHO, 1992). NICE (2011) guidelines suggests that patients with continual sub-threshold depressive symptoms should be offered self-help guides on cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) either manual or computerised, or structured group activity programmes. Michael (and his family, if he consents) should be advised of the expected symptoms, such as the potential for increased agitation and to be mindful of mood changes, negativity and suicidal ideation (Waraich et al., 2004). He should be offered some form of psychological therapy, especially to help with his feelings of loss, due to his failed romance and any other lifestyle problems that may be affecting him. These could include behavioural activation, cognitive-analytic therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and do-it-yourself CBT, group therapy, counselling (family or relationship), interpersonal therapy or psychodynamic psychotherapy/psychoanalysis (Simon et al., 2004). The use of psychosocial/psychological treatment and medication are benef icial in treating moderate to severe depression, such as Michael’s case. Competence frameworks should ensure the patient receives regular supervision, reviewed treatments with monitoring and evaluation of those treatments that may include video or audio tapes and external scrutiny (NICE, 2011) .Collaborative care ought to consist of case management, which should be administered by a senior mental health professional. Care of depressed individuals also requires close cooperation between primary and secondary health services and/or specialist mental health services. Finally, long-term coordination of care and good follow-up with Michael will reduce the risks associated with recurrence of depression. Conclusion The best clinical practice for depression in adults has been defined in QS8, which discusses the measures, audience descriptors, and assessment and clinical management of depression required to provide to patient.   The current guidelines for depression ensure that patients are no longer simply given antidepressants in the long-term without psychosocial/psychological treatments which ensure the patient is involved in their recovery. However, while best practices are derived from the best research evidence available, they are not a replacement for professional acuity and clinical judgement (NICE 2011). References American Psychiatric Association (Ed.) (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Anderson, I.M., Ferrier, I.N., Baldwin, R.C. et al. (2008) Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2000 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. Journal of Psychopharmacology 22(4), 343-396. Bostwick, J.M. and Pankratz, V.S. (2000) Affective disorders and suicide risk: a reexamination. American Journal of Psychiatry 157(12), 1925-1932. DH (2007) Best practice in managing risk: principles and evidence for best practice in the assessment and management of risk to self and others in mental health services. Department of Health. www.dh.gov.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. Jick, H., Kaye, J.A. and Jick, S.S. (2004) Antidepressants and the risk of suicidal behaviors. Journal of the American Medical Association 292(3), 338-343. Knapp, M. and Ilson, S. (2002) Economic aspects of depression and its treatment. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 15(1), 69-75. Kupfer, D.J. (1991) Long-term treatment of depression. 52(Suppl), 28-34. Mitchell, A.J., Vaze, A. and Rao, S. (2009) Clinical diagnosis of depression in primary care: a meta-analysis. Lancet 374(9690), 609-619. Moussavi, S., Chatterji, S., Verdes, E. et al. (2007) Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet 370(9590), 851-858. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009a) Depression in adults (update): full NICE guideline. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. www.nice.org.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009) Depression in adults with a chronic physical health problem: treatment and management (full NICE guideline). National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. www.nice.org.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. NICE (2004) Depression: management of depression in primary and secondary care (NICE guideline) [Replaced by clinical guideline 90 (CG90)]. Clinical guideline 23. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. www.nice.org.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. NICE (2007) Depression (amended): management of depression in primary and secondary care (NICE guideline). [Replaced by clinical guideline 90 (CG90)]. NICE clinical guideline 23 (amended). National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. www.nice.org.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. NICE (2009) Depression. The treatment and management of depression in adults (NICE guideline). National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. www.nice.org.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. NICE (2011) Quality standard on depression in adults. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. www.nice.org.uk. Accessed Jan 2013. Nicholson, A., Kuper, H. and Hemingway, H. (2006) Depression as an aetiologic and prognostic factor in coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of 6362 events among 146 538 participants in 54 observational studies. European Heart Journal 27(23), 2763-2774. Sartorius, N. (2001) The economic and social burden of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62(Suppl 15), 8-11. Simon, H.C., Bruce, M.L., Lee, P.W. et al. (2004) Preventing suicide in primary care patients: the primary care physicians role. General Hospital Psychiatry 26(5), 337-345. Simon, G.E., Savarino, J., Operskalski, B. and Wang, P.S. (2006) Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 163(1), 41-47. Waraich, P., Goldner, E.M., Somers, J.M. and Hsu, L. (2004) Prevalence and incidence studies of mood disorders: a systematic review of the literature. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49(2), 124-138. WHO (1992) The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. World Health Organization. www.who.int. Accessed Jan 2013. WHO who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs369/en/index.html. Accessed Jan 2013.

The Chocolate War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Chocolate War - Essay Example Archie Costello heads The Vigils and the group is specialized in giving assignments that have to be completed by other students. Depending on the individuals, the assignments are different from one person to the other and are intended to inflict as much psychological torture as possible. For instance, when Goober, Jerry’s friend is given an assignment of unscrewing desks, chairs and hinges, he undergoes negative emotional consequences when the desks and chairs fall apart the moment the students come to class the following day. Apathy is indeed infectious. When Jerry refuses to sell the chocolates, he is considered a hero, since his fellow students also refuse to sell their chocolates 1st Student remarks that â€Å"I never thought of saying ‘no’ like you did. That was awesome† (Robinette 56). This clearly indicates that other students were infected by apathy. Jerry proves Archie right when he tells Obie that Jerry is emotionally strong since after loosing his mother, he has stood on his feet by joining school in such a short period of time. Archie claims â€Å"Don’t let him fool you. He is a tough one. Gets wiped out all day, then gets right back up on his feet† (Robinette 12). During certain instances, it is imperative that an individual violates the society around him/her, particularly when the society goes against his/her personal norms. Jerry decides to embrace the assertions of a poster in his locker that reads â€Å"Do I dare disturb the Universe?† (Robinette 39). This was wise of him since every individual has the right to choose what is consciously right for him/her. When Jerry remarks that refusing to sell chocolates is a kind of perversion, he is right, since perversion is an aspect that best describes the behavior of human beings that are considered to be deviating from what is regarded as being normal. At the Trinity school, it was evident that The

Eastern Massasauga Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Eastern Massasauga - Essay Example Eastern Massasauga is a rattlesnake, tail tipped by grey-yellow horny rattles and with several dark brown rings. An adult Massasauga is 18 to 30 inches in length (US fish and wildlife service web). Eastern Massasaugas inhabit wet areas. During spring, Massasauga use open shallow wetlands or shrub swamps. During summer, they move upward to drier areas where they can be found the sunning in open fields. In the northern part of the US, Eastern Massasauga live in Canada, Ontario, around Georgia bay, Northern Indiana, and Northern and Central Ohio. In addition, they live in Lower Peninsula of Michigan although they are declining due to human activities. Its protection in Michigan as an endangered species is due to destruction of its habitats. Eastern Massasauga is classified in the Eukarya domain, Animalia kingdom, Chordata Phylum, and reptilian class. The botanical name of Eastern Massasauga is Sistrurus Catenatus. The word â€Å"Massasauga† translates to â€Å"great river mouth,† in the Chippewa language describing wet areas surrounding a river where snakes can be found. Other names given to Eastern Massasauga are black Massasauga rattlers, Massasauga rattlers, Michigan rattlers and swamp rattlers (Eastern Massasauga rattlesnake web). An Eastern Massasauga is a slow moving snake that often strikes if disturbed. In New York, it is the smallest of the three venomous snakes. They employ camouflage where they hide in areas that bear the same colour as themselves. Massasaugas take advantage of their different adaptations to survive in the wet areas. For instance they have to detect prey from a distance through its organs. It uses Vomero-nasal organ also known as Jacobson’s organ that is located at the roof of the mouth with nerve endings in to the brain to detect prey. They take their tongue out to pick some air and place it on to the surface of Vomero for detection. In addition, this organ detects mates, geographical regions, and predators (John

Genetic modification of foods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Genetic modification of foods - Essay Example Genetic engineering is the process of altering the genes of a species by transferring certain traits from the genes of other species into it. Genes are composed of DNA and constitute instructions which direct the cell production of proteins which in turn, facilitate the functions of the cell. Nevertheless, this is an act of meddling with the nature. These days various religious and public interest organizations, environmental activists and numerous other government and private agencies are raising their consent against the genetic modification of the foods. Agribusiness has received massive criticism for enhancing the profitability of the business with the genetic modification of food without care for the environment unfriendly side effects of the same. Owing to our limited knowledge, we are not able to identify many potential demerits of the practice of modifying the genes of the foods we consume. Nature knows its laws best and any attempt to improvise the nature of food does not co me without side effects. Genetic modification of foods yields both direct and indirect unfavorable consequences. Genetic modification may not necessarily make the crop harmful to eat, but may also generate negative effects for the environment in the course of cultivating the very crop. In the Nature study, pollen from the B.t. corn was found to cause the monarch butterfly caterpillars to die in large numbers (Whitman). This was a surprising discovery since monarch caterpillars feed upon the milkweed plants instead of corn. The most likely way for the corn pollen to make it to the caterpillars’ stomach requires wind to blow them and place them upon the milkweed plants. A lot of effort has conventionally been made to cultivate such B.t. toxin that kills just the crop-destroying pests, but hardly any has met with success. Not only the butterfly caterpillars, but also several other species of organisms are exposed to the risk by the B.t. toxins. â€Å"These genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can spread through nature and interbreed with natural organisms, thereby contaminating non 'GE' environments and future generations in an unforeseeable and uncontrollable way† (â€Å"What wrong with†). Thus, we are increasing the resistance of our crops against diseases on the cost of the life of various species and organisms which are not only harmless for us but also play a fundamental role in the beautification of nature. Genetic modification of food cultivates an allergen into it. â€Å"[A] soybean engineered to contain genes from a brazil nut was found to produce allergic reactions in blood serum of individuals with nut allergies† (Massey). These reactions are very serious and have the potential to be fatal. In this particular case, conducting test for the allergenic potential was easier because of the commonality of the nut allergies but it may not be quite as easier in other cases. Identifying the food item that might have instigated the a llergic reaction becomes very cumbersome when a familiar genetically engineered food starts producing unusual substances in the bloodstream. Sometimes, characteristics that have been induced in the food with positive intention can prove toxic in effect. For example, the Bt toxin that is produced by bacteria is conventionally deemed safe for the humans. Toxin in these bacteria sustains in the form of protoxin that yields negative effects for the insects after the digestive system of the insect has activated it. Humans lack sufficient knowledge about exposure to such a toxin form that is produced in activated form by the genetically modified Bt crops and existed before only in the insects’

Use of Internet for Sex Crimes Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Use of Internet for Sex Crimes - Research Paper Example With this growing problem, what have the law enforcement agencies done to address this problem? Different researches were conducted on the activities of law enforcement agencies and other agencies involved and it revealed that the federal and state government, law enforcement agencies, different task forces and other such agencies have roles in suppressing this crime. Despite the involvement of these agencies involvement of citizens and the private sector is indispensable in solving this problem. Law enforcement is confronted with the challenge of dealing with crimes which are not necessarily expected in criminal statutes (Wolak, Mitchell & Finkelhor, 2003). Hence, law enforcement has to ‘master technical advances,’ widen their investigative techniques, and now handle criminal cases that may be under the so-called multiple jurisdictions (2003). According to a study made by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, law enforcement has made estimated arrests of around 2,577 in the twelve months since they started in 01 July 2000 (2003). These internet sex crimes include sexual assaults which may either be completed or attempted; use of the internet by illegal means in order to transmit materials sexual in content and to solicit minors; the production, distribution and possession of internet child pornography; webcam offenses, stalking and other related offenses (2003). The law enforcement also uses investigative resources to hunt down or find out the offenders (2003). Law enforcement has taken action in order to fight this crime of internet sex crimes especially against minors (2003). Among the actions taken are the establishment of specialized units in the federal agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the U.S. Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement and the U.S. Postal Inspection Service. Funding for Internet Crimes Against Children Task

Organizational Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational Change - Essay Example This discussion evaluates the reasons for change and most probable responses to the intended change; further, change management as explained in the literature will be explored before concluding with key findings. Innumerable reasons drive organizations to bring about changes in various aspects such as strategies, structures, systems, leadership, services/products, markets etc. The process of substantive change is often a complex process and requires the involvement of many people at various levels, and sometimes even external entities. Reasons for changes can be external forces or internal forces. External forces include political, geographical, legal, social, market-related, competition etc; and internal forces are usually driven by external forces and may include changes to culture, leadership, new products/services, cultural differences etc. Most importantly, organizations are either required to adhere to new laws; adjust to new political systems; enter new geographical locations; introduce new products/services to meet new customer demands; and/or to stay competitive in the market. Internally, the reasons may include entry of new leaders at the top, which also results in changes in organizational culture and strategies; introduction of new organizational systems, technologies, and structures; introduction of new products/services etc. ... n common reasons for resistance, such as lack of information, misinterpretation of change, preference and liking towards the status quo, willingness and commitment, fear of performance-related attributes, and fear. Fear is mostly due to lack of information and understanding related to the need for change and its future impact; fear may also be due to notions attached to job security, status, position or role; fear of failure in performance and rewards and fear associated with increased workloads; fear of change in work groups and disruptions to established interrelationships; and fear of change in power and authority (Nelson & Quick, 2012). Another important point is that identified by Eccles (1994), i.e., lack of trust in management also causes fear and resistance to change (Dawson, 2003). Another perspective is that of emotional aspect developed by employees with respect to their job, relationships, position, performance, location etc (Jordan, 2004). Nelson and Quick (2012) assert that managing change requires the management to build trusting relationships with employees. Openness and transparency in communicating the reasons for change, process of change and expected outcomes of change can be a great beginning to change implementation. A shared vision related to the expected outcomes through intended change will improve commitment towards change. Most importantly, involvement and belongingness of employees are required for successful change. Before adopting strategies towards this effort, employee resistance should be addressed through clarity in roles and goals, and constant communication related to the progress of intended change. This will improve employee commitment and trust in management; it will also enhance involvement, cooperation and collaboration of

Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Relationship - Essay Example At only about two months, Fudgee stood out among the rest of the litters due to her remarkable talent: she could climb two flights of averaged-stepped residential stairs just to be with me. From the first time she climbed such a formidable task as a young pup, my affection has been directed to her. Fudgee had such notably noticeable facial expression as a young pup. She would look at you as if always begging for mercy. Her cute little eyes are virtually obliterated from the shaggy and unruly hair. She opens her mouth to show the tiny red tongue while unceasingly wagging her tail. When confined to a pet cage with her siblings, I noticed early on that whenever I would come out from my room and pass by, she is the only one awake, staring at me – as if there was no sleepy bone in her being. I recognized then, that there must be something special about this pup. I observed this when I work on my special place at home. I usually spend my leisure time at a loft overlooking our houseà ¢â‚¬â„¢s terrace where my laptop is strategically situated. As soon as I start to climb the stairs, Fudgee is right behind me. She would snuggle comfortably at my feet while I navigate the Internet for email messages or respond to comments from friends at my Facebook page.

Use of Internet for Sex Crimes Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Use of Internet for Sex Crimes - Research Paper Example With this growing problem, what have the law enforcement agencies done to address this problem? Different researches were conducted on the activities of law enforcement agencies and other agencies involved and it revealed that the federal and state government, law enforcement agencies, different task forces and other such agencies have roles in suppressing this crime. Despite the involvement of these agencies involvement of citizens and the private sector is indispensable in solving this problem. Law enforcement is confronted with the challenge of dealing with crimes which are not necessarily expected in criminal statutes (Wolak, Mitchell & Finkelhor, 2003). Hence, law enforcement has to ‘master technical advances,’ widen their investigative techniques, and now handle criminal cases that may be under the so-called multiple jurisdictions (2003). According to a study made by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, law enforcement has made estimated arrests of around 2,577 in the twelve months since they started in 01 July 2000 (2003). These internet sex crimes include sexual assaults which may either be completed or attempted; use of the internet by illegal means in order to transmit materials sexual in content and to solicit minors; the production, distribution and possession of internet child pornography; webcam offenses, stalking and other related offenses (2003). The law enforcement also uses investigative resources to hunt down or find out the offenders (2003). Law enforcement has taken action in order to fight this crime of internet sex crimes especially against minors (2003). Among the actions taken are the establishment of specialized units in the federal agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the U.S. Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement and the U.S. Postal Inspection Service. Funding for Internet Crimes Against Children Task

Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Relationship - Essay Example At only about two months, Fudgee stood out among the rest of the litters due to her remarkable talent: she could climb two flights of averaged-stepped residential stairs just to be with me. From the first time she climbed such a formidable task as a young pup, my affection has been directed to her. Fudgee had such notably noticeable facial expression as a young pup. She would look at you as if always begging for mercy. Her cute little eyes are virtually obliterated from the shaggy and unruly hair. She opens her mouth to show the tiny red tongue while unceasingly wagging her tail. When confined to a pet cage with her siblings, I noticed early on that whenever I would come out from my room and pass by, she is the only one awake, staring at me – as if there was no sleepy bone in her being. I recognized then, that there must be something special about this pup. I observed this when I work on my special place at home. I usually spend my leisure time at a loft overlooking our houseà ¢â‚¬â„¢s terrace where my laptop is strategically situated. As soon as I start to climb the stairs, Fudgee is right behind me. She would snuggle comfortably at my feet while I navigate the Internet for email messages or respond to comments from friends at my Facebook page.

A story About Ghost and Vampires Essay Example for Free

A story About Ghost and Vampires Essay Life of Pi is a story that is mainly focused on the aspect of survival. Being trapped together with Richard Parker, a Royal Bengal tiger, Pis odds seem to have been pulverized to nothing. Yet as the story progresses, Richard Parker begins to give Pl hope and a reason to survive. Pis will to survive returns; If he can survive while living together with a Bengal Tiger, he can survive anything. Although seeming a huge threat to Pl at first, Richard Parker unintentionally takes on the role of ghost and rotects Pl against the vampires that he faces, glvlng him moral support, and thus the will to survive. At the beginning of the story In part two, Pl Immediately faces his first vampire: the hyena. Being trapped on a lifeboat together with an Injured zebra, an orangutan and a hyena, It quickly becomes evident to Pl who stands at the top of the food chain. It does not take long before this vampire starts to rejuvenate Itself by feasting on Pls companions. Right when the hyena has set its gaze on Pi, Richard Parker (the ghost) omes into play and kills Pis first vampire, unintentionally protecting Pi in the process. Though scared at first, Pi learns to deal with Richard Parker over time and eventually even becomes blessed with his presence. It was Richard Parker who calmed me down. It is the irony of this story that the one who scared me witless to start with was the very same who brought me peace, purpose, I dare say even wholeness. Chapter 57, page 204. Richard Parker proves to be Pis motivator again and again throughout the story, especially when Pi encounters his next vampire: the Pacific Ocean. The saying; the ocean gives and takes, can be taken quite literarily in this book. The ocean has given Pi basic offerings, food and water mainly, but seeps the life force out of him simultaneously with its strong razor sharp winds, bone crushing waves, and scorching sun. The ocean tries to break Pis spirit several times. For example when Pi spots a cargo ship, resulting in the slightest of hopes only to have it all taken away again as the ship passes and does not notice him. Richard Parker is yet again the one thing that keeps Pi going by merely being there and giving Pi moral support In the arkest of times. l love you! The words burst out pure and unfettered, infinite. The feeling fluttered my chest. Truly I do. I love you Richard Parker. If I didnt have you now, I dont know what I would do. I dont think I would make It. No, I wouldnt. I would die of hopelessness. Dont give up, Richard Parker, dont give up. Ill get you to land, I promise, I promise! Chapter 86, Page 294. Even though Richard Parker does not know It, he yet again serves as a tremendous motivator to Pl. Last but not least Pl meets his last vampire in Its purest form: the algae Island. Pl becomes enchanted with the Island and It almost seems Ilke he falls under some sort of spell or glamour, luring him Inside with Its delicious edible algae and fresh drinking water. Pl decides to spend his nights on the Island Instead of the boat, yet Is scared that Richard Parker might attack him in his sleep. He therefore decides to sleep In the trees and makes the gruesome discovery that the island feeds on its inhabitants at night.

The Taguchi Methods for Quality Improvement

The Taguchi Methods for Quality Improvement INTRODUCTION: Taguchi methods are statistical methods developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to, engineering, biotechnology, marketing and advertising. Professional statisticians have welcomed the goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchis development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of Taguchis proposals. Taguchis work includes three principal contributions to statistics: A specific loss function see Taguchi loss function; The philosophy of off-line quality control; and Innovations in the design of experiments. Loss functions Loss functions in statistical theory Traditionally, statistical methods have relied on mean-unbiased estimators of treatment effects: Under the conditions of the Gauss-Markov theorem, least squares estimators have minimum variance among all mean-unbiased estimators. The emphasis on comparisons of means also draws (limiting) comfort from the law of large numbers, according to which the sample means converge to the true mean. Fishers textbook on the design of experiments emphasized comparisons of treatment means. Gauss proved that the sample-mean minimizes the expected squared-error loss-function (while Laplace proved that a median-unbiased estimator minimizes the absolute-error loss function). In statistical theory, the central role of the loss function was renewed by the statistical decision theory of Abraham Wald. However, loss functions were avoided by Ronald A. Fisher.[6] Taguchis use of loss functions Taguchi knew statistical theory mainly from the followers of Ronald A. Fisher, who also avoided loss functions. Reacting to Fishers methods in the design of experiments, Taguchi interpreted Fishers methods as being adapted for seeking to improve the mean outcome of a process. Indeed, Fishers work had been largely motivated by programmes to compare agricultural yields under different treatments and blocks, and such experiments were done as part of a long-term programme to improve harvests. However, Taguchi realised that in much industrial production, there is a need to produce an outcome on target, for example, to machine a hole to a specified diameter, or to manufacture a cell to produce a given voltage. He also realised, as had Walter A. Shewhart and others before him, that excessive variation lay at the root of poor manufactured quality and that reacting to individual items inside and outside specification was counterproductive. He therefore argued that quality engineering should start with an understanding of quality costs in various situations. In much conventional industrial engineering, the quality costs are simply represented by the number of items outside specification multiplied by the cost of rework or scrap. However, Taguchi insisted that manufacturers broaden their horizons to consider cost to society. Though the short-term costs may simply be those of non-conformance, any item manufactured away from nominal would result in some loss to the customer or the wider community through early wear-out; difficulties in interfacing with other parts, themselves probably wide of nominal; or the need to build in safety margins. These losses are externalities and are usually ignored by manufacturers, which are more interested in their private costs than social costs. Such externalities prevent markets from operating efficiently, according to analyses of public economics. Taguchi argued that such losses would in evitably find their way back to the originating corporation (in an effect similar to the tragedy of the commons), and that by working to minimise them, manufacturers would enhance brand reputation, win markets and generate profits. Such losses are, of course, very small when an item is near to negligible. Donald J. Wheeler characterised the region within specification limits as where we deny that losses exist. As we diverge from nominal, losses grow until the point where losses are too great to deny and the specification limit is drawn. All these losses are, as W. Edwards Deming would describe them, unknown and unknowable, but Taguchi wanted to find a useful way of representing them statistically. Taguchi specified three situations: Larger the better (for example, agricultural yield); Smaller the better (for example, carbon dioxide emissions); and On-target, minimum-variation (for example, a mating part in an assembly). The first two cases are represented by simple monotonic loss functions. In the third case, Taguchi adopted a squared-error loss function for several reasons: It is the first symmetric term in the Taylor series expansion of real analytic loss-functions. Total loss is measured by the variance. As variance is additive (for uncorrelated random variables), the total loss is an additive measurement of cost (for uncorrelated random variables). The squared-error loss function is widely used in statistics, following Gausss use of the squared-error loss function in justifying the method of least squares. Reception of Taguchis ideas by statisticians Though many of Taguchis concerns and conclusions are welcomed by statisticians and economists, some ideas have been especially criticized. For example, Taguchis recommendation that industrial experiments maximise some signal-to-noise ratio (representing the magnitude of the mean of a process compared to its variation) has been criticized widely. Off-line quality control Taguchis rule for manufacturing Taguchi realized that the best opportunity to eliminate variation is during the design of a product and its manufacturing process. Consequently, he developed a strategy for quality engineering that can be used in both contexts. The process has three stages: System design Parameter design Tolerance design System design This is design at the conceptual level, involving creativity and innovation. Parameter design Once the concept is established, the nominal values of the various dimensions and design parameters need to be set, the detail design phase of conventional engineering. Taguchis radical insight was that the exact choice of values required is under-specified by the performance requirements of the system. In many circumstances, this allows the parameters to be chosen so as to minimise the effects on performance arising from variation in manufacture, environment and cumulative damage. This is sometimes called robustification. Tolerance design With a successfully completed parameter design, and an understanding of the effect that the various parameters have on performance, resources can be focused on reducing and controlling variation in the critical few dimensions (see Pareto principle). Design of experiments Taguchi developed his experimental theories independently. Taguchi read works following R. A. Fisher only in 1954. Taguchis framework for design of experiments is idiosyncratic and often flawed, but contains much that is of enormous value. He made a number of innovations. Outer arrays Taguchis designs aimed to allow greater understanding of variation than did many of the traditional designs from the analysis of variance (following Fisher). Taguchi contended that conventional sampling is inadequate here as there is no way of obtaining a random sample of future conditions.[7] In Fishers design of experiments and analysis of variance, experiments aim to reduce the influence of nuisance factors to allow comparisons of the mean treatment-effects. Variation becomes even more central in Taguchis thinking. Taguchi proposed extending each experiment with an outer array (possibly an orthogonal array); the outer array should simulate the random environment in which the product would function. This is an example of judgmental sampling. Many quality specialists have been using outer arrays. Later innovations in outer arrays resulted in compounded noise. This involves combining a few noise factors to create two levels in the outer array: First, noise factors that drive output lower, and second, noise factors that drive output higher. Compounded noise simulates the extremes of noise variation but uses fewer experimental runs than would previous Taguchi designs. Management of interactions Interactions, as treated by Taguchi Many of the orthogonal arrays that Taguchi has advocated are saturated arrays, allowing no scope for estimation of interactions. This is a continuing topic of controversy. However, this is only true for control factors or factors in the inner array. By combining an inner array of control factors with an outer array of noise factors, Taguchis approach provides full information on control-by-noise interactions, it is claimed. Taguchi argues that such interactions have the greatest importance in achieving a design that is robust to noise factor variation. The Taguchi approach provides more complete interaction information than typical fractional factorial designs, its adherents claim. * Followers of Taguchi argue that the designs offer rapid results and that interactions can be eliminated by proper choice of quality characteristics. That notwithstanding, a confirmation experiment offers protection against any residual interactions. If the quality characteristic represents the energy transformation of the system, then the likelihood of control factor-by-control factor interactions is greatly reduced, since energy is additive. Inefficencies of Taguchis designs * Interactions are part of the real world. In Taguchis arrays, interactions are confounded and difficult to resolve. Statisticians in response surface methodology (RSM) advocate the sequential assembly of designs: In the RSM approach, a screening design is followed by a follow-up design that resolves only the confounded interactions that are judged to merit resolution. A second follow-up design may be added, time and resources allowing, to explore possible high-order univariate effects of the remaining variables, as high-order univariate effects are less likely in variables already eliminated for having no linear effect. With the economy of screening designs and the flexibility of follow-up designs, sequential designs have great statistical efficiency. The sequential designs of response surface methodology require far fewer experimental runs than would a sequence of Taguchis designs.[ TAGUCHI METHODS There has been a great deal of controversy about Genichi Taguchis methodology since it was first introduced in the United States. This controversy has lessened considerably in recent years due to modifications and extensions of his methodology. The main controversy, however, is still about Taguchis statistical methods, not about his philosophical concepts concerning quality or robust design. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that Taguchis philosophy has promoted, on a worldwide scale, the design of experiments for quality improvement upstream, or at the product and process design stage. Taguchis philosophy and methods support, and are consistent with, the Japanese quality control approach that asserts that higher quality generally results in lower cost. This is in contrast to the widely prevailing view in the United States that asserts that quality improvement is associated with higher cost. Furthermore, Taguchis philosophy and methods support the Japanese approach to move quality improvement upstream. Taguchis methods help design engineers build quality into products and processes. As George Box, Soren Bisgaard, and Conrad Fung observed: Today the ultimate goal of quality improvement is to design quality into every product and process and to follow up at every stage from design to final manufacture and sale. An important element is the extensive and innovative use of statistically designed experiments. TAGUCHIS DEFINITION OF QUALITY The old traditional definition of quality states quality is conformance to specifications. This definition was expanded by Joseph M. Juran (1904-) in 1974 and then by the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) in 1983. Juran observed that quality is fitness for use. The ASQC defined quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given needs. Taguchi presented another definition of quality. His definition stressed the losses associated with a product. Taguchi stated that quality is the loss a product causes to society after being shipped, other than losses caused by its intrinsic functions. Taguchi asserted that losses in his definition should be restricted to two categories: (1) loss caused by variability of function, and (2) loss caused by harmful side effects. Taguchi is saying that a product or service has good quality if it performs its intended functions without variability, and causes little loss through harmful side effects, including the cost of using it. It must be kept in mind here that society includes both the manufacturer and the customer. Loss associated with function variability includes, for example, energy and time (problem fixing), and money (replacement cost of parts). Losses associated with harmful side effects could be market shares for the manufacturer and/or the physical effects, such as of the drug thalidomide, for the consumer. Consequently, a company should provide products and services such that possible losses to society are minimized, or, the purpose of quality improvement is to discover innovative ways of designing products and processes that will save society more than they cost in the long run. The concept of reliability is appropriate here. The next section will clearly show that Taguchis loss function yields an operational definition of the term loss to society in his definition of quality. TAGUCHIS LOSS FUNCTION We have seen that Taguchis quality philosophy strongly emphasizes losses or costs. W. H. Moore asserted that this is an enlightened approach that embodies three important premises: for every product quality characteristic there is a target value which results in the smallest loss; deviations from target value always results in increased loss to society; [and] loss should be measured in monetary units (dollars, pesos, francs, etc.). Figure I depicts Taguchis typically loss function. The figure also contrasts Taguchis function with the traditional view that states there are no losses if specifications are met. Taguchis Loss Function It can be seen that small deviations from the target value result in small losses. These losses, however, increase in a nonlinear fashion as deviations from the target value increase. The function shown above is a simple quadratic equation that compares the measured value of a unit of output Y to the target T.: Essentially, this equation states that the loss is proportional to the square of the deviation of the measured value, Y, from the target value, T. This implies that any deviation from the target (based on customers desires and needs) will diminish customer satisfaction. This is in contrast to the traditional definition of quality that states that quality is conformance to specifications. It should be recognized that the constant k can be determined if the value of L(Y) associated with some Y value are both known. Of course, under many circumstances a quadratic function is only an approximation. Since Taguchis loss function is presented in monetary terms, it provides a common language for all the departments or components within a company. Finally, the loss function can be used to define performance measures of a quality characteristic of a product or service. This property of Taguchis loss function will be taken up in the next section. But to anticipate the discussion of this property, Taguchis quadratic function can be converted to: This can be accomplished by assuming Y has some probability distribution with mean, a and variance o.2 This second mathematical expression states that average or expected loss is due either to process variation or to being off target (called bias), or both. TAGUCHI, ROBUST DESIGN, AND THEÂ  DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS Taguchi asserted that the development of his methods of experimental design started in Japan about 1948. These methods were then refined over the next several decades. They were introduced in the United States around 1980. Although, Taguchis approach was built on traditional concepts of design of experiments (DOE), such as factorial and fractional factorial designs and orthogonal arrays, he created and promoted some new DOE techniques such as signal-to-noise ratios, robust designs, and parameter and tolerance designs. Some experts in the field have shown that some of these techniques, especially signal-to-noise ratios, are not optimal under certain conditions. Nonetheless, Taguchis ideas concerning robust design and the design of experiments will now be discussed. DOE is a body of statistical techniques for the effective and efficient collection of data for a number of purposes. Two significant ones are the investigation of research hypotheses and the accurate determination of the relative effects of the many different factors that influence the quality of a product or process. DOE can be employed in both the product design phase and production phase. A crucial component of quality is a products ability to perform its tasks under a variety of conditions. Furthermore, the operating environmental conditions are usually beyond the control of the product designers, and, therefore robust designs are essential. Robust designs are based on the use of DOE techniques for finding product parameter settings (e.g., temperature settings or drill speeds), which enable products to be resilient to changes and variations in working environments. It is generally recognized that Taguchi deserves much of the credit for introducing the statistical study of robust design. We have seen how Taguchis loss function sets variation reduction as a primary goal for quality improvement. Taguchis DOE techniques employ the loss function concept to investigate both product parameters and key environmental factors. His DOE techniques are part of his philosophy of achieving economical quality design. To achieve economical product quality design, Taguchi proposed three phases: system design, parameter design, and tolerance design. In the first phase, system design, design engineers use their practical experience, along with scientific and engineering principles, to create a viably functional design. To elaborate, system design uses current technology, processes, materials, and engineering methods to define and construct a new system. The system can be a new product or process, or an improved modification of an existing product or process. The parameter design phase determines the optimal settings for the product or process parameters. These parameters have been identified during the system design phase. DOE methods are applied here to determine the optimal parameter settings. Taguchi constructed a limited number of experimental designs, from which U.S. engineers have found it easy to select and apply in their manufacturing environments. The goal of the parameter design is to design a robust product or process, which, as a result of minimizing performance variation, minimizes manufacturing and product lifetime costs. Robust design means that the performance of the product or process is insensitive to noise factors such as variation in environmental conditions, machine wear, or product to-product variation due to raw material differences. Taguchis DOE parameter design techniques are used to determine which controllable factors and which noise factors are the significant variables. The aim is to set the controllable factors at those levels that will result in a product or process being robust with respect to the noise factors. In our previous discussion of Taguchis loss function, two equations were discussed. It was observed that the second equation could be used to establish quality performance measures that permit the optimization of a given products quality characteristic. In improving quality, both the average response of a quality and its variation are important. The second equation suggests that it may be advantageous to combine both the average response and variation into a single measure. And Taguchi did this with his signal-to-noise ratios (S/N). Consequently, Taguchis approach is to select design parameter levels that will maximize the appropriate S/N ratio. These S/N ratios can be used to get closer to a given target value (such as tensile strength or baked tile dimensions), or to reduce variation in the products quality characteristic(s). For example, one S/N ratio corresponds to what Taguchi called nominal is best. Such a ratio is selected when a specific target value, such as tensile strength, is the design goal. For the nominal is best case, Taguchi recommended finding an adjustment factor (some parameter setting) that will eliminate the bias discussed in the second equation. Sometimes a factor can be found that will control the average response without affecting the variance. If this is the case, our second equation tells us that the expected loss becomes: Consequently, the aim now is to reduce the variation. Therefore, Taguchis S/N ratio is: where S 2 is the samples standard deviation. In this formula, by minimizing S 2 , 10 log 10 S 2 , is maximized. Recall that all of Taguchis S/N ratios are to be maximized. Finally, a few brief comments concerning the tolerance design phase. This phase establishes tolerances, or specification limits, for either the product or process parameters that have been identified as critical during the second phase, the parameter design phase. The goal here is to establish tolerances wide enough to reduce manufacturing costs, while at the same time assuring that the product or process characteristics are within certain bounds. EXAMPLES AND CONCLUSIONS As Thomas P. Ryan has stated, Taguchi at the very least, has focused our attention on new objectives in achieving quality improvement. The statistical tools for accomplishing these objectives will likely continue to be developed. Quality management gurus, such as W. Edwards Deming (1900-1993) and Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-), have stressed the importance of continuous quality improvement by concentrating on processes upstream. This is a fundamental break with the traditional practice of relying on inspection downstream. Taguchi emphasized the importance of DOE in improving the quality of the engineering design of products and processes. As previously mentioned, however, his methods are frequently statistically inefficient and cumbersome. Nonetheless, Taguchis design of experiments have been widely applied and theoretically refined and extended. Two application cases and one refinement example will now be discussed. K. N. Anand, in an article in Quality Engineering, discussed a welding problem. Welding was performed to repair cracks and blown holes on the cast-iron housing of an assembled electrical machine. Customers wanted a defect-free quality weld, however the welding process had resulted in a fairly high percentage of welding defects. Management and welders identified five variables and two interactions that were considered the key factors in improving quality. A Taguchi orthogonal design was performed resulting in the identification of two highly significant interactions and a defect-free welding process. The second application, presented by M. W. Sonius and B. W. Tew in a Quality Engineering article, involved reducing stress components in the connection between a composite component and a metallic end fitting for a composite structure. Bonding, pinning, or riveting the fitting in place traditionally made the connections. Nine significant variables that could affect the performance of the entrapped fiber connections were identified and a Taguchi experimental design was performed. The experiment identified two of the nine factors and their respective optimal settings. Therefore, stress levels were significantly reduced. The theoretical refinement example involves Taguchi robust designs. We have seen where such a design can result in products and processes that are insensitive to noise factors. Using Taguchis quadratic loss function, however, may provide a poor approximation of true loss and suboptimal product or process quality. John F. Kros and Christina M. Mastrangelo established relationships between nonquadratic loss functions and Taguchis signal-to-noise ratios. Applying these relationships in an experimental design can change the recommended selection of the respective settings of the key parameters and result in smaller losses.